COMPILING YOUR REFERENCE LIST/BIBLIOGRAPHY                                          5

What is the Harvard System?

It is one of several different ways of citing references in your assignments and describing the sources of your references. The other most commonly used system is the Vancouver (or numerical) system.

What does 'referencing' mean and why do I need to do this in my assignment?

References to the particular source are required if you draw upon another writer's ideas in your assignment,

or if you make a direct quote. Important reasons for referencing are:

- to acknowledge other people's ideas

- to show that you are not just giving your own opinions but are also including other
   people's

- to illustrate a point or offer support for an argument you want to make

- to enable readers of your work to find the source material

A well-used quotation can make a point clearly and concisely but try not to over-use quotes. It is important that you demonstrate your understanding of what you have read and are able to develop your own ideas by putting points or arguments into your own words.

How many references do I need to make?

There is no hard and fast rule as to how many references are required in an assignment and much may depend upon the type of assignment. Generally it would be impossible and unwieldy if you referenced every point you made but general guidance is that major points you make or arguments you present, and especially direct quotes or ideas drawn directly from other people's work, should be acknowledged and referenced. Failure to give credit to other people's work appropriately could be considered as plagiarism.

What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism is to "take and use the thoughts, writings, inventions, etc of another person as one's own"

(Concise Oxford Dictionary 1995).

Usually we all formulate our own ideas from different things we see, hear and read. Plagiarism involves a blatant and deliberate attempt to pass off someone else's ideas as your own, or to copy sections or chunks of text from another's work without attempting to put these ideas into your own words or acknowledge the sources. It is a form of theft and is certainly regarded as a serious offence in educational settings.

How do I incorporate references and quotations into my assignment?

In the Harvard System you must always give the author(s) and year of publication of your source.

References can be incorporated into the text in a variety of ways.

Some examples are:

1. In the following example you are making a statement in your own words and giving a reference for the source of your ideas or support for your argument:

      Fulch and Scott (1999) suggest that it is not easy to offer a generally acceptable definition of religion

Further examples:

A recent television programme discussed . . . (BBC 2000)

Specific incidents described by Burnard and Morrison (1997) show that…..

If you wish to cite a number of references for a point you make, in the text they are arranged in chronological order with the oldest reference coming first, e.g.

Reflective practice is considered an essential element within the caring
            professions (Palmer et al, 1994: Yelloly and Henkel, 1995: Johns and Freshwater,
           1998)

2.  In the following example you are making a direct quote (note that you must include the page number also)

            Haralambos and Holborn state that "the family has been seen as a universal social
            institution, an inevitable part of human society" (Haralambos and Holborn 1990,
             p.453).

 3. With a longer quote it is generally preferable to indent the quote to make it clear:

     Bee states that there is

“a good deal of evidence that high-quality, cognitively enriched day care has
              beneficial effects in many children’s overall cognitive development. This effect
              is particularly vivid for infants and children from poor families”
              (Bee 1998, p.150)

How do I refer to a work which I haven't seen myself but which is referred to in

something that I have read?

These are known as secondary or second-hand references. Ideally they should be avoided as you should have read the original items yourself but if it is unavoidable it is important to make it clear that it is a secondary reference as follows:

In an article of 1991 Wilford also maintains that Columbus's treatment of native
            people following his conquests is frequently seen in an ambiguous light (cited in
            Ransby 1992)

The "cited in" statement makes it clear that you have not seen the item by Wilford, only what Ransby says about it. Details of the item by Ransby will then appear in the reference list at the end of your assignment as this is the source of your information i.e.

RANSBY, B. (1992) ‘Columbus and the making of historical myth’ Race & Class
            33(3) Jan-Mar pp.79-86.

Wilford must not appear in your reference list as you have not seen this article.

What is the difference between a reference list and a bibliography?

A reference list contains details of any item you have referred to or quoted from in your assignment. A bibliography is a list of items you have made use of in preparing your assignment, but not referred to in your text.

How do I set out my reference list and bibliography?

Both lists are placed at the end of your text and usually the reference list appears first. Both lists will be arranged in alphabetical order of author, and details given should be presented in a consistent format. Usually it is not necessary to include in your bibliography any item already listed in your reference list.

Whether titles are underlined or italicised or in bold, or authors in capitals etc. may be determined by Faculty/School requirements. The most important thing is to be consistent.

What details are required and where do I find these details?

Details required for a book can be found on the front and reverse of the title page which is usually the first or second unnumbered page inside the book.

Details for a book should be set out in the following order:

AUTHOR, INITIALS (year) Title Edition [if later than first] Place of publication [Town]:Name of publisher

Example: BEE, H(1998) Lifespan development 2nd ed New York: Longman

Details required for a journal article can usually be found on the contents list, front cover or article itself. Details for a journal article should be set out in the following order:

AUTHOR, INITIALS (year) Title of article, Name of journal. Volume number (Issue number) Date of issue. First and last pages

Example: BONEN, A. and SHAW, S.M. (1995) ‘Recreational exercise
            participation and aerobic fitness in men and women: analysis of data from a
            national survey’, Journal of Sports Science, 13(4) August pp.297-303

It is not vital to put authors in capitals but it can help to make them stand out. Equally it can help readers if you underline titles or use a different typeface. Check whether your school has specific requirements.

How do I give details from an edited book when the chapters are by different authors?

It is important to give details for each of the chapters you have referred to or used. The details of the chapter come first and then details of the book as a whole.

Example: Porter,M. (1998) ‘What is strategy?’ in Segal-Horn, S.(Ed.) The
            strategy reader. Oxford: Blackwell in association with the Open University
            pp.73-99

If you don’t need to refer to a specific chapter but want to reference the whole book it should be listed under the editor(s) e.g. Srarkey,K. (ed) (1996) How organizations learn, London: International Thomson Business Press.

POINTS TO NOTE:

AUTHORS: If there are more than TWO authors it is acceptable to put the first author listed followed by et al (which means "and others") in the text. In your reference list and bibliography it may be necessary to list all authors - please check your course requirements. If you need to refer to two or more items written by the same author in the same year use letters to differentiate the items e.g. Smith (1994a), Smith (1994b).

DATES: Occasionally items do not give a date of publication in which case you can put ‘undated’ or ‘no date’ in brackets instead of the date. This shows that you have checked for the date and not just forgotten to include it.

EDITIONS: Only include edition statements if later than first. No edition statement indicates that it is a first edition.

Make sure that you match the edition statement with the correct year of publication. This should be indicated clearly on the reverse of the title page.

Don't get editions confused with reprints. Reprints occur when demand exceeds expectations and publishers have to print more copies in the same edition and same format e.g. the fourth edition of Argyle’s  “The psychology of interpersonal behaviour” was reprinted in 1990 but the edition date is 1983 –

Argyle,M. (1983) The psychology of interpersonal behaviour ,(4th ed). Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin

PAGE NUMBERS: You must always put a page number for a quote.

You might be asked to give page numbers for all the references you make so find out first. In some cases the point you make might be referred to on a specific page or between specific pages (e.g. p.63 or pp.172-175). Sometimes it may be difficult to give specific page numbers as an argument may be supported by the item as a whole.

How do I describe a government report or an Act of Parliament?

Most reports will have as an author either a government department or body or committee, or may be well-known by the name of the chairperson of the group or committee. With Acts of Parliament it is acceptable and often easier to cite the title of the Act in your text and then to include it in the reference list in alphabetical order of the first main word of the Act.
            Example: Department of Health (1999) Saving Lives: our healthier nation,
            London: The Stationery Office

Disability Discrimination Act (1995) London: HMSO

What about describing other types of material such as videos, leaflets, internet-based resources etc?

These are important sources of information but sometimes can be harder to describe. The golden rule always is to describe items as fully and clearly as possible, and in a consistent format.

In the case of television/radio programmes make sure you note the date and channel of transmission. Unless self-evident it may be useful to indicate that an item is an audio- or video-cassette.

Example: Channel Four Television (1998) Dispatches: Ofsted 19 March
                              London: Channel 4 [Videocasette]

In the case of leaflets, the author is often the organisation publishing the leaflet.

Example: Cancerlink (undated) Declaration of rights of people with cancer
                             London: Cancerlink

Usually Internet resources can be described using details similar to those for printed material with the additional information, given the ever-changing nature of Internet resources, of the date when the resource was accessed. The address of the page referred to, e.g. the URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is the equivalent of the place and the publisher.

Example of World Wide Web resource: Improvement and Development
            Agency (1999) Local Agenda 21 UK: what’s new [WWW]
            http://www.scream.co.uk/la21/ [accessed 3 March 2000]

For more detailed guidance on different types of Internet and electronic resources and many more examples see Help Sheet (31)
REFERENCING ELECTRONIC SOURCES
http://www.lisa.sbu.ac.uk/helpsheets/hs31.pdf

Finally . . . Remember to:

- keep a careful note of all your sources as you prepare your assignment

- make a note of book details before you return your library books

- make sure you have the details you require on any photocopies you make

- make sure you are referencing according to any guidelines set by your course

This may seem like hard work but it is a vital part of your assignments and you may lose marks for incorrect referencing.

Specialist sources: Law

For full details refer to FRENCH, D. (1996) How to cite legal authorities London: Blackstone Press (348.00148)

For the new system of neutral citations for law reports consult Practice Direction

(Judgements: Form and Citation) (Supreme Court), [2001] 1 WLR

Further Help - for additional information, more examples and a different way of learning about the Harvard System see also Information Quest - an online interactive package on information skills designed for South Bank University students at http://www.lisa.sbu.ac.uk/quest/

There is a unit on 'Citing References and Compiling a Bibliography / Reference List'.